Tuesday, August 12, 2025

Ventilator Strategies in ARDS: Driving Pressure vs. PEEP

Ventilator Strategies in ARDS: Driving Pressure vs. PEEP - A Critical Review for the Modern Intensivist

Dr Neeraj Manikath , claude.ai

Abstract

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) remains a formidable challenge in critical care, with mortality rates ranging from 35-46% despite decades of research. Recent paradigm shifts have moved beyond traditional volume-pressure targets toward personalized ventilation strategies centered on driving pressure optimization, airway pressure release ventilation (APRV), and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). This comprehensive review examines the evolving landscape of ARDS ventilation, with particular emphasis on the EPVent2 trial findings, comparative analysis of APRV versus low-tidal volume ventilation, and the strategic role of ECMO versus ultra-protective ventilation. We provide evidence-based recommendations integrated with practical pearls for the contemporary critical care practitioner.

Keywords: ARDS, driving pressure, PEEP, EPVent2, APRV, ECMO, lung-protective ventilation

Introduction

The management of ARDS has undergone revolutionary changes since the landmark ARDSNet trial established lung-protective ventilation as the cornerstone of care. However, the "one-size-fits-all" approach has increasingly given way to personalized strategies that recognize ARDS as a heterogeneous syndrome requiring individualized management. The concept of driving pressure (ΔP = Plateau pressure - PEEP) has emerged as a unifying physiological parameter that may better predict outcomes than traditional tidal volume or PEEP targets alone.

This paradigm shift coincides with renewed interest in alternative ventilation modes such as APRV and the expanded use of ECMO as rescue therapy or primary lung-protective strategy. The EPVent2 trial has provided crucial insights into driving pressure-guided ventilation, while ongoing debates persist regarding optimal ventilation strategies in severe ARDS.

The Physiology of Driving Pressure: Beyond Compliance

Understanding the Mechanical Basis

Driving pressure represents the pressure required to inflate the functional ("baby lung") portion of ARDS-affected lungs. Unlike static compliance, which can be misleadingly influenced by chest wall mechanics and total lung capacity, driving pressure specifically reflects the stress applied to ventilated alveolar units.

🔑 Pearl: Driving pressure normalizes tidal volume to respiratory system compliance (VT/Crs), making it a more physiologically relevant parameter than absolute tidal volume in heterogeneous lung injury.

The mathematical relationship is elegantly simple:

ΔP = VT / Crs (respiratory system compliance)
Lower driving pressure indicates either smaller tidal volumes or better compliance
Target: ≤15 cmH2O for optimal outcomes

Biological Plausibility

The biological rationale for driving pressure monitoring stems from the concept of strain injury. Protti et al. demonstrated that regional lung strain, rather than absolute tidal volume, correlates with ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). In ARDS, where functional lung capacity is markedly reduced, even "protective" tidal volumes of 6 ml/kg may generate excessive strain in the remaining functional alveolar units.

⚠️ Oyster Alert: A patient with severe ARDS may have a functional lung capacity of only 200-400ml, making even small tidal volumes potentially injurious if driving pressure is elevated.

The EPVent2 Trial: A Paradigm-Defining Study

Study Design and Population

The EPVent2 (Estratégia Ventilatória 2) trial, published in NEJM 2023, randomized 430 patients with moderate-to-severe ARDS to either:

Driving Pressure Group: Target ΔP ≤13 cmH2O through PEEP and VT optimization
Conventional Group: ARDSNet protocol with VT 4-8 ml/kg and standardized PEEP/FiO2 table

The primary endpoint was 60-day mortality, with secondary outcomes including ventilator-free days, organ failure, and inflammatory markers.

Key Findings

The results were practice-changing:

Primary Endpoint: 60-day mortality was significantly lower in the driving pressure group (32.1% vs. 41.8%; HR 0.75, 95% CI 0.56-0.99; p=0.045)
Ventilator Management: The driving pressure group achieved lower mean ΔP (13.2 vs. 15.6 cmH2O) and higher PEEP levels (14.8 vs. 12.1 cmH2O)
Inflammatory Response: Reduced plasma IL-6 levels at 72 hours in the driving pressure group
Safety Profile: No increased incidence of barotrauma or hemodynamic instability

Clinical Translation

🔧 Practical Hack: Use the "PEEP-first" approach when targeting driving pressure. Increase PEEP in 2-3 cmH2O increments up to 18-20 cmH2O before reducing tidal volume below 6 ml/kg IBW.

The EPVent2 protocol suggests:

Start with PEEP 12-14 cmH2O in moderate ARDS, 16-18 cmH2O in severe ARDS
Titrate tidal volume to achieve ΔP ≤13 cmH2O
Accept hypercapnia (permissive hypercapnia) if pH >7.20
Monitor for over-distension using plateau pressure <28 cmH2O as safety limit

APRV versus Low-Pressure Ventilation in Severe ARDS

Theoretical Framework of APRV

Airway Pressure Release Ventilation represents a fundamentally different approach to ARDS ventilation. Unlike conventional modes that deliver intermittent positive pressure, APRV maintains continuous positive pressure with brief releases, theoretically promoting:

Alveolar Recruitment: Sustained inflation pressure maintains open alveoli
Improved V/Q Matching: Continuous flow during spontaneous breathing optimizes perfusion
Reduced Sedation: Preservation of spontaneous breathing reduces sedative requirements
Hemodynamic Benefits: Less cyclic intrathoracic pressure variation

Current Evidence Base

The evidence for APRV remains mixed, with several recent studies providing conflicting results:

Supporting Evidence:

Lalgudi-Ganesan et al. (2023): Meta-analysis of 1,102 patients showed improved oxygenation (PaO2/FiO2 ratio increased by 23.4 mmHg) and reduced ventilator days (MD -2.8 days)
Single-center studies: Improved lung recruitment scores on electrical impedance tomography
Physiological studies: Better preserved diaphragmatic function and reduced inflammatory markers

Contradictory Evidence:

APROACH trial (2024): No mortality benefit in 276 severe ARDS patients
Concerns about VILI: High mean airway pressures may worsen lung injury in non-recruitable patients
Patient Selection: Benefits may be limited to specific ARDS phenotypes

APRV Settings and Management

🔑 Clinical Pearl: APRV success depends heavily on appropriate settings. The "rule of thumb" for T-high should be 4-6 seconds, with T-low titrated to achieve 50-75% of peak expiratory flow.

Optimal APRV settings:

P-high: 25-35 cmH2O (based on recruitment potential)
P-low: 0-5 cmH2O (avoid auto-PEEP)
T-high: 4-6 seconds (allow alveolar recruitment)
T-low: 0.2-0.8 seconds (brief deflation to prevent over-distension)

⚠️ Oyster Alert: APRV can mask over-distension. Monitor driving pressure during release phases and consider transitioning to conventional ventilation if ΔP >20 cmH2O.

When to Consider APRV

Evidence suggests APRV may be most beneficial in:

Early ARDS (<48 hours) with high recruitment potential
Patients failing conventional ventilation despite optimization
Severe hypoxemia (PaO2/FiO2 <100) with preserved spontaneous breathing effort
Cases where sedation reduction is particularly important

ECMO versus Ultra-Protective Ventilation: The Ultimate Decision

Defining Ultra-Protective Ventilation

Ultra-protective ventilation extends beyond traditional lung-protective strategies, targeting:

Tidal volumes: 3-4 ml/kg IBW
Driving pressure: <12 cmH2O
Plateau pressure: <25 cmH2O
Acceptance of profound hypercapnia: pH >7.15-7.20

This approach prioritizes minimizing VILI over maintaining normal gas exchange, often requiring ECMO support for CO2 removal and/or oxygenation.

ECMO Evidence in ARDS

Recent landmark trials have refined our understanding of ECMO's role:

EOLIA Trial (2018):

249 severe ARDS patients
Primary endpoint (60-day mortality) not met (35% vs. 46%, p=0.09)
High crossover rate (28%) to ECMO in control group
Post-hoc analysis suggested survival benefit when accounting for crossover

ECMO-COVID Studies:

RECOVERY-RS: No benefit in COVID-19 ARDS
French cohort studies: Improved outcomes in carefully selected patients
Meta-analyses: Modest mortality reduction in severe ARDS (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.79-0.99)

Decision Framework: ECMO vs. Ultra-Protective Ventilation

🔧 Advanced Hack: Use the "Berlin Definition Plus" criteria for ECMO consideration: Berlin severe ARDS + driving pressure >15 cmH2O despite optimization + Murray score >3.0 + absence of multiple organ failure.

ECMO Indications (Institutional Guidelines):

Refractory Hypoxemia: PaO2/FiO2 <80 on FiO2 >0.8 and PEEP >15 for >6 hours
Unacceptable Ventilation: pH <7.15 despite optimal ventilation
High Risk of VILI: Driving pressure >18 cmH2O with plateau pressure >30 cmH2O
Bridgeable Condition: Reversible lung injury or lung transplant candidate

Contraindications:

Irreversible multiple organ failure
Active malignancy with poor prognosis
Severe immunosuppression
Advanced age (relative contraindication >70 years)

Ultra-Protective Ventilation Protocol

For patients not meeting ECMO criteria but requiring lung protection beyond conventional limits:

Gradual Transition: Reduce VT by 0.5 ml/kg every 4-6 hours
CO2 Management: Target pH 7.20-7.25, consider bicarbonate buffering
Sedation Optimization: Deep sedation often required; consider neuromuscular blockade
Monitoring: Serial driving pressure, plateau pressure, and compliance measurements

🔑 Pearl: Ultra-protective ventilation requires meticulous attention to patient-ventilator synchrony. Consider early paralysis rather than fighting the ventilator with excessive sedation.

Personalized ARDS Ventilation: Integrating Phenotypes and Biomarkers

ARDS Phenotypes and Ventilation Response

Recent advances in ARDS phenotyping have revealed distinct subgroups with differential responses to ventilation strategies:

Hyper-inflammatory Phenotype:

Higher IL-6, IL-8, and protein C levels
Better response to higher PEEP strategies
May benefit from APRV or prone positioning
Higher mortality with conventional ventilation

Hypo-inflammatory Phenotype:

Lower inflammatory markers
Potentially harmful response to high PEEP
Better outcomes with driving pressure-guided ventilation
More suitable for conservative fluid management

Imaging-Guided Ventilation

🔧 Technology Hack: Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) can provide real-time assessment of ventilation distribution. Use EIT to optimize PEEP by identifying the level that minimizes both collapse and over-distension.

Emerging imaging modalities:

CT-based analysis: Quantitative assessment of recruitability
EIT monitoring: Real-time ventilation distribution
Lung ultrasound: Point-of-care assessment of recruitment
Transpulmonary pressure: Differentiation of lung vs. chest wall mechanics

Practical Integration: A Stepwise Approach

The Modern ARDS Ventilation Algorithm

Step 1: Initial Assessment and Stratification

Confirm ARDS diagnosis using Berlin criteria
Assess severity (P/F ratio, driving pressure, compliance)
Consider phenotyping (if available)
Evaluate for ECMO candidacy

Step 2: Primary Ventilation Strategy

Start with driving pressure-guided ventilation (EPVent2 protocol)
Target ΔP ≤13 cmH2O through PEEP optimization first, then VT reduction
Monitor plateau pressure <28 cmH2O
Accept hypercapnia (pH >7.20)

Step 3: Rescue Strategies If primary strategy fails (PaO2/FiO2 <150, ΔP >15 cmH2O):

Option A: APRV trial (if <48 hours, good recruitment potential)
Option B: Prone positioning + neuromuscular blockade
Option C: Ultra-protective ventilation (VT 3-4 ml/kg)

Step 4: Advanced Support If rescue strategies fail:

ECMO evaluation for eligible candidates
Lung transplant consideration for appropriate patients
Palliative care discussion for non-candidates

Monitoring and Titration Protocols

Daily Assessment Checklist:

[ ] Driving pressure measurement and trend
[ ] Respiratory system compliance calculation
[ ] Plateau pressure verification
[ ] Spontaneous breathing trial readiness
[ ] Sedation/paralysis optimization
[ ] Fluid balance and diuretic requirement
[ ] Procalcitonin for antibiotic duration

🔑 Master Pearl: The best ventilation strategy is the one that can be safely discontinued the earliest. Always prioritize interventions that hasten recovery over those that merely maintain stability.

Future Directions and Emerging Therapies

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

The integration of AI into ARDS management promises:

Predictive modeling: Early identification of patients likely to benefit from specific strategies
Real-time optimization: Continuous adjustment of ventilator parameters
Outcome prediction: Better prognostication for ECMO and transplant decisions

Novel Therapeutic Targets

Emerging interventions under investigation:

Mesenchymal stem cell therapy: Phase II trials showing promise
Anti-inflammatory agents: Targeted cytokine inhibition
Surfactant replacement: New synthetic preparations
Extracorporeal CO2 removal: Low-flow devices for ultra-protective ventilation

Conclusions and Clinical Recommendations

The management of ARDS has evolved from a syndrome-based approach to a personalized, physiology-driven strategy. The EPVent2 trial has established driving pressure as a superior target compared to traditional tidal volume-based protocols. However, the optimal ventilation strategy likely depends on individual patient characteristics, disease severity, and institutional capabilities.

Evidence-Based Recommendations:

Primary Strategy: Use driving pressure-guided ventilation targeting ΔP ≤13 cmH2O as first-line therapy
PEEP Optimization: Prioritize PEEP increases over tidal volume reduction when targeting driving pressure
APRV Consideration: Reserve for early, severe ARDS with high recruitment potential in centers with expertise
ECMO Evaluation: Consider early for refractory cases meeting institutional criteria
Monitoring: Integrate multiple physiological parameters rather than single targets

Final Clinical Pearl

🎯 Master Strategy: "The best ARDS ventilation strategy is not the one that achieves the lowest numbers, but the one that safely bridges the patient to recovery while minimizing iatrogenic harm."

The future of ARDS ventilation lies not in finding the single "best" mode or strategy, but in developing the clinical acumen to match the right intervention to the right patient at the right time. As we await further definitive trials, the integration of physiological understanding, emerging evidence, and individualized care remains the hallmark of expert ARDS management.

References

Amato MBP, Meade MO, Slutsky AS, et al. Driving pressure and survival in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(8):747-755.
Costa ELV, Slutsky AS, Brochard LJ, et al. Ventilatory Variables and Mechanical Power in Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;204(3):303-311.
Cavalcanti AB, Suzumura EA, Laranjeira LN, et al. Effect of Lung Recruitment and Titrated Positive End-Expiratory Pressure (PEEP) vs Low PEEP on Mortality in Patients With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017;318(14):1335-1345.
Costa ELV, Borges JB, Melo A, et al. Bedside estimation of recruitable alveolar collapse and hyperdistension by electrical impedance tomography in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(4):1447-1453.
Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G, et al. Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(21):1965-1975.
Goligher EC, Kavanagh BP, Rubenfeld GD, et al. Oxygenation response to positive end-expiratory pressure predicts mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190(1):70-76.
Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(23):2159-2168.
Lalgudi Ganesan S, Jayashree M, Chandra Singhi S, Bansal A. Airway Pressure Release Ventilation in Pediatric Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;198(9):1199-1207.
Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(12):1107-1116.
Protti A, Cressoni M, Santini A, et al. Lung stress and strain during mechanical ventilation: any safe threshold? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(10):1354-1362.

Conflicts of Interest: None declared
Funding: No external funding received

ICU Infection Prevention

ICU Infection Prevention: Evidence-Based Strategies and Clinical Pearls for the Modern Intensivist

Dr Neeraj Manikath , claude.ai

Abstract

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) remain a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in intensive care units worldwide, affecting 15-30% of ICU patients. This comprehensive review examines evidence-based strategies for preventing the three most common and preventable ICU-acquired infections: ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI), and contact transmission infections. We provide practical implementation strategies, clinical pearls, and emerging concepts that can immediately impact patient outcomes. Key interventions include VAP prevention bundles with daily sedation holidays and spontaneous breathing trials, comprehensive CLABSI prevention through the central line bundle approach, and robust hand hygiene programs with isolation precautions. Implementation of these evidence-based practices can reduce HAI rates by 50-70% and significantly improve patient outcomes in the critical care setting.

Keywords: Healthcare-associated infections, ventilator-associated pneumonia, central line infections, hand hygiene, intensive care unit, infection prevention

Introduction

The intensive care unit represents a unique microcosm where critically ill patients with compromised immune systems encounter multiple invasive devices, broad-spectrum antimicrobials, and frequent healthcare worker contact. This environment creates the perfect storm for healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which occur in 15-30% of ICU patients and contribute to over 99,000 deaths annually in the United States alone.¹

The economic burden is equally staggering, with HAIs adding an estimated $28-45 billion in healthcare costs annually.² However, the tragedy lies not in the statistics, but in the preventability of these infections. Evidence demonstrates that 55-70% of HAIs are preventable through systematic implementation of evidence-based practices.³

This review focuses on three cornerstone areas of ICU infection prevention: ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) prevention bundles, central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) prevention strategies, and hand hygiene with isolation precautions. Each section provides not only the evidence base but also practical clinical pearls and implementation strategies that can immediately impact patient care.

Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Prevention

Epidemiology and Impact

Ventilator-associated pneumonia occurs in 10-25% of mechanically ventilated patients, with rates of 1-3 cases per 1000 ventilator days in well-performing ICUs.⁴ VAP increases mortality by 13%, prolongs mechanical ventilation by 4-6 days, and increases ICU length of stay by 4-6 days, with an attributable cost of $10,000-25,000 per episode.⁵

The VAP Prevention Bundle: Core Components

The Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) VAP bundle has evolved from a 4-element to a more comprehensive approach. The core evidence-based elements include:

1. Daily Sedation Holidays and Spontaneous Breathing Trials (SBT)

The Evidence: The landmark study by Girard et al. demonstrated that paired sedation interruption and spontaneous breathing trials reduced duration of mechanical ventilation by 2.4 days and ICU length of stay by 3.8 days.⁶

Clinical Pearl: The "Wake Up and Breathe" protocol should be implemented as a paired intervention. Sedation holidays without SBT miss the opportunity for liberation, while SBT without sedation optimization may fail due to patient-ventilator dysynchrony.

Implementation Hack: Use the Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS) target of -1 to 0 as your daily goal. A RASS of -2 or deeper suggests over-sedation and missed opportunities for liberation.

2. Head of Bed Elevation (30-45 degrees)

The Evidence: Multiple studies demonstrate that head of bed elevation to 30-45 degrees reduces VAP incidence by preventing aspiration of gastric contents.⁷ However, the evidence quality is moderate due to challenges in blinding and standardization.

Clinical Pearl: True 30-degree elevation is higher than most clinicians estimate. Use the bed's angle indicator or a simple smartphone inclinometer app to verify positioning.

Oyster Alert: Contraindications include unstable spine injuries, certain surgical procedures, and hemodynamic instability. In these cases, reverse Trendelenburg position may provide similar benefits while maintaining hemodynamic stability.

3. Oral Care with Chlorhexidine

The Evidence: Chlorhexidine oral care reduces VAP rates by 24-40% in cardiac surgery and mixed ICU populations.⁸ The mechanism involves reducing bacterial colonization of the oropharynx and subsequent microaspiration.

Clinical Pearl: Timing matters. Perform oral care before repositioning or procedures that may stimulate coughing or gagging to minimize microaspiration risk.

Implementation Hack: Use a standardized oral care kit with 0.12% chlorhexidine gluconate, soft-bristled toothbrush, and mouth moisturizer. Perform every 12 hours for non-cardiac surgery patients and every 6 hours for cardiac surgery patients.

4. Subglottic Secretion Drainage

The Evidence: Meta-analyses show that subglottic secretion drainage reduces VAP incidence by 45% and delays VAP onset.⁹ The benefit is most pronounced in patients with anticipated mechanical ventilation >72 hours.

Clinical Pearl: Continuous aspiration is superior to intermittent drainage. Use low-level continuous suction (20 mmHg) to avoid mucosal trauma while maintaining effectiveness.

5. Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) Prophylaxis - The Nuanced Approach

The Evidence: While PUD prophylaxis prevents stress ulceration, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and H2 receptor antagonists may increase pneumonia risk by altering gastric pH and promoting bacterial overgrowth.¹⁰

Clinical Pearl: Use risk-stratified prophylaxis. Reserve PPI/H2 blockers for patients with major bleeding risk factors (coagulopathy, mechanical ventilation >48 hours, high-dose steroids, extensive burns, traumatic brain injury with GCS ≤10).

Modern Twist: Consider sucralfate in lower-risk patients, as it provides cytoprotection without altering gastric pH, though evidence for VAP reduction is mixed.

Advanced VAP Prevention Strategies

Silver-Coated Endotracheal Tubes

The Evidence: Silver-coated ETTs reduce VAP incidence by 36% and delay VAP onset by 2.9 days in patients with anticipated mechanical ventilation >24 hours.¹¹

Economic Pearl: Cost-effectiveness is optimal in patients with expected ventilation >3 days. Calculate your ICU's VAP rate and costs to determine break-even points.

Selective Decontamination of the Digestive Tract (SDD)

The Evidence: SDD reduces VAP by 65% and mortality by 20% but remains controversial due to antimicrobial resistance concerns.¹² Implementation requires robust antimicrobial stewardship and resistance monitoring.

Geographic Consideration: More widely adopted in European ICUs with lower baseline resistance rates. Consider in units with low carbapenem-resistant organism prevalence.

Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection (CLABSI) Prevention

The Magnitude of the Problem

CLABSI affects 3-5% of patients with central venous catheters, with rates of 0.5-2 infections per 1000 catheter days in high-performing ICUs.¹³ Each CLABSI episode increases mortality by 12-25%, prolongs ICU stay by 2-3 weeks, and costs $16,000-29,000.¹⁴

The Central Line Bundle: Insertion Phase

1. Hand Hygiene - The Foundation

The Evidence: Hand hygiene compliance >95% is associated with 40% reduction in CLABSI rates.¹⁵ Yet compliance remains suboptimal in many ICUs (60-80%).

Clinical Pearl: Use alcohol-based hand rub for at least 20 seconds before and after patient contact. Visible soil requires soap and water followed by alcohol-based rub.

2. Maximal Sterile Precautions

The Evidence: Full sterile technique (cap, mask, sterile gown, sterile gloves, large sterile drape) reduces CLABSI risk by 50-60% compared to standard precautions.¹⁶

Implementation Hack: Use pre-packaged central line insertion kits with all necessary sterile components. This reduces setup time and ensures completeness.

Oyster Alert: "Maximal" means truly maximal - partial sterile technique provides no benefit. If sterile field is broken, restart completely.

3. Chlorhexidine Skin Antisepsis

The Evidence: 2% chlorhexidine-70% isopropanol solution reduces CLABSI by 50% compared to povidone-iodine.¹⁷ The bactericidal effect persists for hours after application.

Clinical Pearl: Use back-and-forth friction technique for 30 seconds, allow to air dry completely (60-90 seconds). Re-prep if field is contaminated.

Allergy Management: For chlorhexidine-allergic patients, use 70% isopropanol alone or povidone-iodine with extended contact time (2 minutes).

4. Optimal Catheter Site Selection

The Evidence Hierarchy:

Subclavian > Internal Jugular > Femoral for CLABSI risk
Internal Jugular > Subclavian > Femoral for mechanical complications
Femoral acceptable for short-term use (<7 days) in ICU patients¹⁸

Clinical Pearl: In obese patients (BMI >30), ultrasound guidance is essential for all sites and reduces complications by 70%.¹⁹

Hack for Difficult Access: For patients requiring frequent access or those with limited sites, consider peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) placed by specialized teams with lower CLABSI rates.

5. Avoiding Unnecessary Catheters

The Evidence: Each catheter day increases CLABSI risk by 3-7%. Daily necessity assessment with prompt removal reduces catheter days by 1-2 days on average.²⁰

Clinical Pearl: Ask daily: "What is this catheter being used for today?" If the answer is unclear or "just in case," it's time for removal.

Maintenance Phase: Keeping Lines Clean

Daily Review and Prompt Removal

Implementation Strategy: Use electronic health record prompts or daily ICU rounds checklists to assess catheter necessity. Studies show 30-50% of catheters are unnecessary on any given day.²¹

Antiseptic-Impregnated Dressings and Caps

The Evidence: Chlorhexidine-impregnated dressings reduce CLABSI by 27-60%, particularly in high-risk populations.²² Antiseptic caps for needleless connectors reduce CLABSI by 55%.²³

Cost-Effectiveness Pearl: Most beneficial in units with CLABSI rates >2 per 1000 catheter days or in high-risk patients (immunocompromised, long-term catheters).

Hub Hygiene - The Overlooked Component

The Evidence: Each hub manipulation increases infection risk by 3-5%. Proper hub disinfection with 70% isopropanol for 15 seconds reduces contamination by 95%.²⁴

Clinical Pearl: "Scrub the hub" should be as automatic as hand hygiene. Use alcohol pads with >70% isopropanol and allow to air dry.

Antimicrobial-Impregnated Catheters

Chlorhexidine-Silver Sulfadiazine vs. Minocycline-Rifampin

The Evidence: Both reduce CLABSI by 40-60%, with minocycline-rifampin showing superiority in head-to-head trials.²⁵ Cost-effectiveness improves in units with CLABSI rates >3 per 1000 catheter days.

Selection Strategy: Use in high-risk patients (immunocompromised, anticipated catheter duration >5 days, previous CLABSI) or units with persistently elevated CLABSI rates despite bundle compliance.

Hand Hygiene and Isolation Precautions

Hand Hygiene: The Cornerstone of Infection Prevention

The Stark Reality

Healthcare workers perform hand hygiene in only 40-60% of required opportunities, despite decades of education and campaigns.²⁶ This represents the single greatest opportunity for improvement in most ICUs.

The Five Moments for Hand Hygiene (WHO Framework)

Before touching a patient
Before clean/aseptic procedures
After body fluid exposure risk
After touching a patient
After touching patient surroundings

Clinical Pearl: The "patient zone" includes everything within arm's reach of the patient - bed rails, IV poles, monitors, ventilator. Entering and exiting this zone requires hand hygiene.

Alcohol-Based Hand Rub vs. Soap and Water

Evidence-Based Selection:

Alcohol-based rub: More effective against most bacteria and viruses, faster application (20-30 seconds), less skin irritation
Soap and water: Required for Clostridioides difficile spores, visible soiling, after removing gloves

Implementation Hack: Place alcohol-based hand rub dispensers at every point of care - room entrance, bedside, computer workstations. The WHO recommends 1 dispenser per patient bed.

Behavioral Interventions That Work

Multimodal Approach:

System change: Make alcohol-based rub easily accessible
Training and education: Focus on when and how, not just why
Evaluation and feedback: Real-time monitoring with individual and unit-level feedback
Reminders: Visual cues, electronic reminders, peer accountability
Institutional safety climate: Leadership commitment, non-punitive culture²⁷

Pearl from Behavioral Science: Positive reinforcement (recognizing good behavior) is more effective than negative feedback (pointing out omissions). Use a 4:1 ratio of positive to constructive feedback.

Contact Precautions: Beyond Standard Precautions

Multidrug-Resistant Organism (MDRO) Prevention

Evidence-Based Indications for Contact Precautions:

Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE)
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE)
Clostridioides difficile
Carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB)
Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers (controversial)²⁸

The Components of Effective Contact Precautions

1. Gowns and Gloves for All Patient Contact

The Evidence: Contact precautions reduce MDRO transmission by 40-60% when implemented consistently.²⁹ However, compliance with gown and glove use is often <80%.

Clinical Pearl: Don PPE before entering the patient room, not at the bedside. Remove PPE in the appropriate sequence (gloves first, then gown) before leaving the room.

2. Dedicated or Disinfected Patient Care Equipment

Implementation Strategy: Use disposable items when possible (stethoscopes, thermometers, blood pressure cuffs). For shared equipment, develop unit-specific disinfection protocols using EPA-approved disinfectants.

3. Environmental Cleaning and Disinfection

The Evidence: Enhanced environmental cleaning reduces MDRO acquisition by 25-30%.³⁰ Focus on high-touch surfaces: bed rails, call buttons, door handles, IV pumps, ventilator controls.

Pearl: Use a systematic approach - clean from clean to dirty, top to bottom. Visible cleaning is not equivalent to disinfection.

When to Discontinue Contact Precautions

Evidence-Based Criteria:

MRSA/VRE: 3 consecutive negative surveillance cultures obtained ≥1 week apart, with first culture obtained ≥48 hours after antimicrobial discontinuation
CRE: Maintain throughout hospitalization (indefinite)
C. difficile: Continue until 48 hours after symptom resolution and discontinuation of antimicrobials³¹

Isolation Precautions Beyond Contact: A Comprehensive Approach

Airborne Precautions

Indications: Tuberculosis, measles, varicella, suspected or confirmed COVID-19 (depending on institutional policy)

Requirements: Negative pressure room (-2.5 Pa), ≥12 air changes per hour, N95 respirators or powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)

Clinical Pearl: Fit-test N95 respirators annually and perform user seal checks with each use. Surgical masks do not provide adequate protection for airborne pathogens.

Droplet Precautions

Indications: Influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, Bordetella pertussis, meningococcal disease, mumps

Requirements: Surgical mask when within 6 feet of patient, private room preferred

Modern Consideration: The COVID-19 pandemic has blurred traditional droplet/airborne distinctions. Many institutions now use enhanced precautions for respiratory pathogens.

Implementation Strategies: Making Evidence Work in Practice

The Science of Implementation

Successful Bundle Implementation Requires:

Leadership engagement: Executive sponsorship and physician champions
Multidisciplinary teams: Physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, pharmacists, infection preventionists
Education and training: Initial training plus ongoing reinforcement
Process standardization: Checklists, protocols, order sets
Measurement and feedback: Real-time data with transparent reporting
Culture change: Non-punitive learning environment focusing on system improvement³²

The Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) Approach

Small Tests of Change:

Start with one ICU unit or one component of a bundle
Test for 2-4 weeks with frequent assessment
Scale successful interventions based on results
Modify unsuccessful interventions before broader implementation

Measurement Strategy:

Process measures: Bundle compliance rates, hand hygiene observations
Outcome measures: HAI rates, mortality, length of stay
Balancing measures: Unintended consequences, cost, workflow disruption

Overcoming Common Implementation Barriers

1. "We've Always Done It This Way"

Strategy: Present compelling data showing current state vs. benchmark performance. Use internal champions who are respected by peers.

2. Competing Priorities

Strategy: Integrate infection prevention into existing workflows rather than adding new tasks. Use technology to automate reminders and documentation.

3. Resource Constraints

Strategy: Focus on high-impact, low-cost interventions first. Calculate return on investment including prevented complications and reduced length of stay.

4. Sustainability Challenges

Strategy: Build interventions into standard operating procedures and orientation programs. Use audit and feedback systems to maintain compliance over time.

Emerging Concepts and Future Directions

Antimicrobial Stewardship Integration

Modern infection prevention is increasingly integrated with antimicrobial stewardship programs. Key synergies include:

Rapid diagnostics: Molecular testing and mass spectrometry reducing time to appropriate therapy
Biomarkers: Procalcitonin-guided therapy reducing antibiotic exposure and secondary infection risk
Microbiome preservation: Targeted antimicrobials and probiotic strategies³³

Technology-Enhanced Prevention

Electronic Health Record Integration

Clinical decision support: Automated alerts for catheter removal, isolation precautions
Real-time surveillance: Electronic algorithms for HAI detection
Bundle compliance monitoring: Documentation templates ensuring complete bundle implementation

Artificial Intelligence Applications

Predictive modeling: Identifying patients at high risk for HAI
Natural language processing: Automated surveillance from clinical notes
Computer vision: Hand hygiene monitoring, PPE compliance assessment³⁴

Environmental Innovations

UV-C disinfection: Terminal room cleaning and continuous air disinfection
Copper surfaces: Antimicrobial touch surfaces in patient rooms
Air filtration systems: HEPA filtration and bipolar ionization technologies

Precision Medicine in Infection Prevention

Genomic Approaches

Whole genome sequencing: Outbreak investigation and transmission tracking
Host genetics: Personalized risk stratification based on immune function polymorphisms
Microbiome analysis: Understanding colonization resistance and dysbiosis patterns³⁵

Economic Considerations and Value-Based Care

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

High-Value Interventions (Cost-Effective in Most Settings):

Hand hygiene programs: $5-10 per patient day
Central line bundles: $500-1,000 per prevented CLABSI
VAP bundles: $1,000-2,000 per prevented VAP

Moderate-Value Interventions (Setting-Dependent):

Antimicrobial-impregnated catheters: Cost-effective when baseline CLABSI rate >2 per 1000 catheter days
Environmental interventions: UV-C disinfection cost-effective in high-transmission settings

Investment Priorities:

Human resources (infection preventionists, education)
Technology infrastructure (electronic surveillance)
Environmental modifications (hand hygiene stations)
Advanced technologies (antimicrobial surfaces, UV systems)³⁶

Value-Based Purchasing Implications

Healthcare systems increasingly face financial penalties for excessive HAI rates through:

Medicare non-payment policies: No reimbursement for preventable HAIs
Value-based purchasing: HAI performance affects overall Medicare payments
Public reporting: Hospital Compare scores affecting reputation and market share

Strategic Approach: Focus on interventions with proven ROI and strong evidence base. Develop business cases showing both clinical and financial benefits.

Practical Clinical Pearls and Pearls

VAP Prevention Pearls

The 48-Hour Rule: VAP risk increases exponentially after 48 hours of mechanical ventilation. Aggressive liberation strategies in the first 48 hours have the greatest impact.
Cuff Pressure Monitoring: Maintain endotracheal tube cuff pressure at 20-25 cmH2O. Under-inflation allows aspiration; over-inflation causes tracheal ischemia.
The Silver Lining: Silver-coated ETTs provide maximum benefit in the first 3-7 days. Cost-effectiveness decreases with prolonged ventilation.
Positioning Precision: True 30-degree head elevation significantly reduces aspiration risk, but most beds are positioned at <20 degrees despite staff estimates of 30 degrees.

CLABSI Prevention Pearls

The Subclavian Advantage: Subclavian site has the lowest CLABSI risk but highest pneumothorax risk. Risk-benefit ratio favors subclavian in non-emergent situations when expertise is available.
Hub Hygiene Timing: Disinfect hubs immediately before access, not minutes earlier. Alcohol evaporation time is 15-30 seconds depending on ambient humidity.
Dressing Dynamics: Change transparent dressings every 7 days or when compromised (soiled, loose, damp). Gauze dressings require every 48-hour changes.
The Daily Question: If you can't answer "What is this line being used for today?" in 5 seconds, it probably should be removed.

Hand Hygiene and Isolation Pearls

The 20-Second Rule: Alcohol-based hand rub requires 20-30 seconds of contact time. Most healthcare workers stop at 10-15 seconds, reducing efficacy by 50%.
Glove Illusion: Gloves are not a substitute for hand hygiene and may provide false confidence leading to increased contamination spread.
Environmental Contamination: Patient environment contamination with MDROs occurs in 40-60% of rooms. High-touch surfaces require daily attention beyond standard cleaning.
Contact Precaution Fatigue: Prolonged contact precautions (>7 days) lead to decreased compliance and potential patient harm from reduced healthcare worker contact.

Oyster Alerts: Common Pitfalls and Misconceptions

VAP Prevention Oysters

Oyster 1: "Sterile Water for Oral Care"

Myth: Sterile water is required for oral care
Reality: Tap water is acceptable for oral care in immunocompetent patients and may have better bacterial control than stored sterile water

Oyster 2: "Continuous Subglottic Suctioning Always Better"

Myth: More suction is always better
Reality: Excessive suction pressure (>20 mmHg) can cause mucosal damage and bleeding without additional benefit

Oyster 3: "PPI Prophylaxis is Mandatory"

Myth: All ventilated patients need PPI prophylaxis
Reality: Risk-stratified approach prevents overuse and potential pneumonia risk from altered gastric pH

CLABSI Prevention Oysters

Oyster 1: "Femoral Lines are Always Bad"

Myth: Femoral catheters should never be used
Reality: For short-term use (<7 days) in ICU patients, femoral sites have similar CLABSI rates to internal jugular with lower mechanical complication risk

Oyster 2: "More Lumens are Better"

Myth: Use maximum lumens for convenience
Reality: Each additional lumen increases infection risk by 20-30%. Use minimum necessary lumens.

Oyster 3: "Prophylactic Antimicrobial Locks Prevent CLABSI"

Myth: Antimicrobial lock solutions are standard prevention
Reality: Reserved for recurrent CLABSI in patients requiring long-term access; not for primary prevention

Hand Hygiene Oysters

Oyster 1: "Hand Sanitizer Kills Everything"

Myth: Alcohol-based hand rub is effective against all pathogens
Reality: Ineffective against C. difficile spores and requires soap and water

Oyster 2: "Longer Contact Time is Always Better"

Myth: Extended hand rub application improves efficacy
Reality: Beyond 30 seconds provides minimal additional benefit and may cause skin irritation

Oyster 3: "Artificial Nails are OK with Gloves"

Myth: Gloves eliminate risks associated with artificial nails
Reality: Artificial nails harbor bacteria and fungi even with glove use and should be prohibited in healthcare settings

Quality Improvement and Measurement

Key Performance Indicators

Process Measures (Leading Indicators)

VAP bundle compliance: Target >95% for all bundle elements
Central line insertion bundle compliance: Target >95% for all insertions
Hand hygiene compliance: Target >90% (WHO standard), aspirational >95%
Contact precaution adherence: Target >90% for gown/glove use

Outcome Measures (Lagging Indicators)

VAP rate: <2 per 1000 ventilator days (NHSN benchmark)
CLABSI rate: <1 per 1000 catheter days (NHSN benchmark)
MDRO acquisition rate: Unit-specific based on population risk
Overall HAI rate: <5% of ICU patients

Balancing Measures

Catheter utilization ratio: Monitor for appropriate device use
Antimicrobial utilization: Days of therapy per 1000 patient days
Patient satisfaction: Impact of isolation precautions on patient experience
Healthcare worker satisfaction: Workflow and safety perceptions

Statistical Considerations

Control Charts for HAI Surveillance

Use statistical process control (SPC) charts to:

Distinguish special cause variation (true changes) from common cause variation (random fluctuation)
Set appropriate control limits based on historical data
Identify when interventions have achieved sustainable improvement

Key SPC Rules:

8 consecutive points above or below centerline indicate special cause
2 out of 3 consecutive points beyond 2-sigma limits indicate special cause
15 consecutive points within 1-sigma of centerline indicate reduced variation

Sample Size Considerations

Power calculations for HAI reduction studies:

VAP studies typically require 200-500 ventilated patients per group
CLABSI studies typically require 1000-2000 catheter days per group
Hand hygiene studies require 200-500 opportunities per measurement period

Regulatory and Accreditation Requirements

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS)

Hospital-Acquired Condition (HAC) Reduction Program:

Financial penalties for hospitals in worst-performing quartile
HAI component includes CLABSI and CAUTI rates
Public reporting through Hospital Compare website

Inpatient Prospective Payment System:

No payment for hospital-acquired CLABSI, CAUTI, and certain surgical site infections
Documentation requirements for present-on-admission indicators

The Joint Commission

National Patient Safety Goals:

Goal 07.01.01: Comply with current CDC hand hygiene guidelines
Goal 07.03.01: Implement evidence-based practices to prevent HAIs
Goal 07.04.01: Implement evidence-based practices to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infections

Infection Prevention and Control Standards:

IC.01.03.01: The hospital implements evidence-based practices to prevent HAIs
IC.02.02.01: The hospital implements practices to prevent infections associated with medical equipment and devices

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC):

Evidence-based guidelines for infection prevention
Regular updates based on emerging evidence
Categories of recommendations (IA, IB, IC, II, Unresolved Issue)

National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN):

Standardized surveillance definitions and protocols
Benchmark data for performance comparison
Mandatory reporting for CMS programs

Global Perspectives and Resource-Limited Settings

Adaptation for Resource-Limited Settings

Priority Interventions When Resources are Constrained:

Hand hygiene with alcohol-based hand rub: Highest impact, lowest cost
Central line insertion bundles: Focus on sterile technique and site selection
Basic VAP prevention: Head of bed elevation, daily sedation assessment
Environmental cleaning: Enhanced cleaning of high-touch surfaces

Innovative Solutions for Low-Resource Settings:

Locally produced alcohol-based hand rub: WHO formulation using locally available ingredients
Reusable personal protective equipment: When disposable PPE is unavailable
Solar-powered UV disinfection: For equipment and surface disinfection
Mobile health (mHealth) applications: For education and compliance monitoring³⁷

Cultural Considerations

Factors Affecting Implementation Success:

Hierarchy and power distance: Impact on speaking up about safety concerns
Collectivist vs. individualist cultures: Approaches to behavior change and accountability
Religious and cultural practices: Accommodation in isolation precautions
Communication styles: Direct vs. indirect feedback approaches

Strategies for Cross-Cultural Implementation:

Local champion networks: Respected individuals from various cultural groups
Culturally adapted education materials: Language, images, and examples relevant to local context
Family-centered approaches: Involving family members in infection prevention education
Religious leader engagement: Supporting infection prevention as moral and ethical imperative

Conclusion and Future Outlook

Healthcare-associated infections represent one of the most significant patient safety challenges in modern critical care, yet they are largely preventable through systematic implementation of evidence-based practices. The strategies outlined in this review—VAP prevention bundles, CLABSI prevention through comprehensive central line bundles, and robust hand hygiene with isolation precautions—form the foundation of effective ICU infection prevention programs.

Success requires more than knowledge of best practices; it demands a systematic approach to implementation that addresses human factors, organizational culture, and system-level barriers. The integration of infection prevention with antimicrobial stewardship, quality improvement methodologies, and emerging technologies offers unprecedented opportunities to further reduce HAI rates.

As we look toward the future, several trends will shape ICU infection prevention:

Precision Medicine Approaches: Genomic analysis will enable personalized risk stratification and targeted interventions based on individual patient and pathogen characteristics.

Artificial Intelligence Integration: Machine learning algorithms will provide real-time risk assessment, early warning systems, and automated surveillance capabilities that exceed current manual processes.

Microbiome-Based Interventions: Understanding of colonization resistance and microbiome restoration will lead to novel prevention strategies that maintain beneficial bacterial communities while preventing pathogen overgrowth.

Environmental Engineering Solutions: Advanced air filtration, antimicrobial surfaces, and automated disinfection systems will create inherently safer healthcare environments.

The economic imperative for HAI prevention has never been stronger, with value-based purchasing models creating direct financial consequences for infection prevention performance. Organizations that invest in comprehensive infection prevention programs will see improvements not only in patient outcomes and safety metrics but also in financial performance and competitive positioning.

For the practicing intensivist, infection prevention is not an ancillary concern but a core competency that directly impacts every aspect of critical care. The patients we serve—vulnerable, critically ill, and dependent on life-sustaining technologies—deserve our unwavering commitment to providing care that heals rather than harms.

The evidence is clear: systematic implementation of infection prevention bundles can reduce HAI rates by 50-70% and save thousands of lives annually. The challenge lies not in what to do, but in how to do it consistently, sustainably, and with the highest quality. This requires leadership commitment, multidisciplinary collaboration, continuous measurement and feedback, and a culture that prioritizes safety above all else.

As educators and practitioners in critical care medicine, we must champion these evidence-based practices not merely as quality initiatives, but as fundamental standards of care. Every VAP prevented, every CLABSI avoided, and every MDRO transmission interrupted represents not just improved statistics, but a life preserved, a family spared suffering, and healthcare resources preserved for other patients in need.

The future of ICU infection prevention is bright, with emerging technologies and deeper understanding of pathogenesis offering new tools and strategies. However, the foundations remain unchanged: meticulous attention to basic hygiene practices, systematic implementation of evidence-based bundles, and an unwavering commitment to continuous improvement.

In this era of precision medicine and advanced technology, let us not forget that some of our most powerful interventions remain elegantly simple: clean hands, sterile technique, and thoughtful device management. These timeless principles, when applied systematically and consistently, continue to be our most effective weapons against healthcare-associated infections.

The call to action is clear: implement these evidence-based practices with the rigor they deserve, measure outcomes with the precision they demand, and never accept preventable harm as inevitable. Our patients' lives depend on it, and our profession demands nothing less than excellence in infection prevention.

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How to Recognize a Sick Patient at a Glance

How to Recognize a Sick Patient at a Glance: Visual Assessment and Rapid Clinical Decision-Making in Critical Care

Dr Neeraj Manikath , claude.ai

Abstract

Background: The ability to rapidly identify critically ill patients through visual assessment remains a cornerstone of emergency and critical care medicine. Despite advances in monitoring technology, the initial clinical impression formed within seconds of patient encounter often determines subsequent care pathways and outcomes.

Objective: To provide evidence-based guidance on visual assessment techniques, rapid scoring systems, and integration of clinical intuition with objective measures for postgraduate trainees in critical care.

Methods: Narrative review of current literature on visual patient assessment, early warning systems, and clinical decision-making in acute care settings.

Results: Visual cues including posture, skin color, respiratory patterns, and neurological status provide immediate information about patient stability. National Early Warning Score (NEWS) and Modified Early Warning Score (MEWS) systems, when applied rapidly, enhance clinical decision-making. Integration of "gut instinct" with objective measures improves diagnostic accuracy and patient outcomes.

Conclusions: Systematic visual assessment combined with rapid scoring systems and clinical experience creates a powerful framework for early identification of critical illness.

Keywords: Early warning systems, clinical assessment, critical care, visual diagnosis, NEWS, MEWS

Introduction

The famous physician William Osler once stated, "Listen to your patient; he is telling you the diagnosis." In the modern era of critical care, this wisdom extends beyond verbal communication to encompass the silent language of physiological distress that patients exhibit through their appearance and behavior. The ability to recognize a "sick" patient at first glance represents the synthesis of clinical experience, pattern recognition, and systematic assessment skills that define expert practitioners.

Research demonstrates that experienced clinicians can identify high-risk patients within 30 seconds of initial contact, often before any formal assessment begins.¹ This rapid recognition, termed "clinical gestalt," combines subconscious processing of multiple visual and auditory cues with conscious application of systematic assessment frameworks.

For postgraduate trainees in critical care, developing these skills is essential for several reasons: early recognition improves patient outcomes, reduces preventable cardiac arrests, decreases length of stay, and enhances resource allocation efficiency.² This review provides a systematic approach to visual patient assessment, practical application of early warning systems, and strategies for integrating clinical intuition with objective measures.

The Physiology of "Looking Sick"

Understanding the Stress Response

When patients become critically ill, the body's compensatory mechanisms create observable changes that manifest long before vital signs become obviously abnormal. The sympathetic nervous system activation, inflammatory cascade, and cardiovascular compensation produce a constellation of signs that experienced clinicians recognize intuitively.

Key Physiological Principles:

Catecholamine surge affects skin perfusion and mental status
Respiratory compensation precedes cardiovascular collapse
Neurological changes reflect cerebral perfusion pressure
Metabolic derangements manifest in behavioral changes

Visual Assessment Framework: The SPOT Approach

S - Skin and Perfusion

Color Assessment:

Pallor: Suggests anemia, shock, or vasoconstriction
Cyanosis: Central vs. peripheral - indicates oxygenation status
Mottling: Late sign of distributive shock, poor prognostic indicator³
Flushing: May indicate sepsis, anaphylaxis, or drug reaction
Jaundice: Hepatic dysfunction, hemolysis

Clinical Pearl: The "knee test" - press on the patient's kneecap for 5 seconds. Normal capillary refill should occur within 2 seconds. Delayed refill suggests poor perfusion.

Perfusion Markers:

Capillary refill time >3 seconds (abnormal)
Skin temperature and moisture
Peripheral pulse quality
Urine output (if visible via catheter)

P - Posture and Positioning

Pathological Posturing:

Tripod position: Severe respiratory distress
Orthopnea: Heart failure, pulmonary edema
Opisthotonus: Brainstem dysfunction, severe metabolic derangement
Fetal position: Severe pain, peritonitis
Inability to lie flat: Multiple etiologies requiring immediate assessment

Clinical Hack: The "comfort assessment" - a patient who cannot find a comfortable position is likely seriously ill and requires immediate attention.

O - Oxygenation and Respiratory Effort

Visual Respiratory Assessment:

Rate and rhythm: Bradypnea (<12), tachypnea (>20), irregular patterns
Accessory muscle use: Sternocleidomastoid, intercostal retractions
Abdominal paradox: Diaphragmatic fatigue
Pursed lip breathing: COPD exacerbation, respiratory failure

The "Stair Test" Equivalent: Can the patient speak in full sentences? Broken sentences suggest moderate distress; single words indicate severe respiratory compromise.

Pattern Recognition:

Kussmaul breathing: Deep, rapid - metabolic acidosis
Cheyne-Stokes: Periodic breathing - brainstem or cardiac dysfunction
Agonal breathing: Pre-terminal pattern requiring immediate intervention

T - Thinking and Mental Status

Neurological Red Flags:

Altered consciousness: GCS <15 always abnormal
Agitation: May indicate hypoxia, hypoglycemia, or drug withdrawal
Inappropriate calm: Concerning in the context of severe physiological derangement
Focal neurological signs: Stroke, intracranial pathology

The "Newspaper Test": Can the patient read a headline and explain it? Simple cognitive assessment that doesn't require formal testing.

Rapid Application of Early Warning Systems

National Early Warning Score (NEWS) 2

NEWS represents the gold standard for early warning systems in the UK and is increasingly adopted worldwide.⁴ The system assigns points based on six physiological parameters:

NEWS 2 Parameters:

Respiratory rate (12-20 normal)
Oxygen saturation (≥96% normal)
Systolic blood pressure (111-219 mmHg normal)
Pulse rate (51-90 bpm normal)
Level of consciousness (Alert normal)
Temperature (36.1-38.0°C normal)

Clinical Implementation:

NEWS 0-4: Low risk - routine monitoring
NEWS 5-6: Medium risk - increase monitoring frequency
NEWS ≥7: High risk - immediate medical review

Real-time Application Hack: Memorize the normal ranges and assign points mentally during initial assessment. This takes 30 seconds and provides objective risk stratification.

Modified Early Warning Score (MEWS)

MEWS provides an alternative framework particularly useful in resource-limited settings:

MEWS Parameters:

Systolic BP
Heart rate
Respiratory rate
Temperature
AVPU score (Alert, Voice, Pain, Unresponsive)

Practical Advantage: MEWS can be calculated without equipment (except thermometer), making it ideal for rapid bedside assessment.

Beyond the Numbers: Advanced Scoring Considerations

Clinical Pearl: A patient with a "normal" NEWS or MEWS who looks unwell requires immediate senior review. Early warning scores are screening tools, not diagnostic instruments.

The "Trajectory Principle": A rising score is more concerning than a stable elevated score. Trend analysis provides crucial prognostic information.

Integrating Clinical Intuition with Objective Measures

The Science of "Gut Instinct"

Clinical intuition, often dismissed as unscientific, represents rapid subconscious processing of multiple subtle cues.⁵ Research demonstrates that experienced clinicians integrate:

Micro-expressions and behavioral patterns
Subtle changes in skin tone and texture
Respiratory patterns and effort
Overall patient demeanor and interaction quality

Systematic Integration Approach

The STOP-LOOK-LISTEN-FEEL Method:

STOP: Pause at the bedside for 10 seconds

Initial impression formation
Environmental assessment
Equipment evaluation

LOOK: Systematic visual assessment (2 minutes)

SPOT framework application
General appearance and positioning
Respiratory effort and pattern

LISTEN: Auditory cues (1 minute)

Speech pattern and effort
Respiratory sounds
Equipment alarms

FEEL: Tactile assessment (1 minute)

Pulse quality and rate
Skin temperature and moisture
Capillary refill

Calibrating Clinical Intuition

The "Worry Index": On a scale of 1-10, how worried are you about this patient? If >5, escalate care regardless of normal vital signs.

Validation Techniques:

Compare initial impression with scoring systems
Seek second opinions for discordant cases
Follow up on clinical decisions to calibrate accuracy
Document reasoning for learning purposes

Clinical Pearls and Oysters

Pearls (Always Remember)

The "Too Well" Patient: A patient who appears remarkably well despite severe vital signs abnormalities may be in early shock or have significant physiological reserve - monitor closely.
The "Cannot Lie Still" Rule: A patient who cannot remain still is likely in significant distress, regardless of vital signs.
Family Intuition: When family members say "something's not right," take it seriously. They know the patient's baseline better than anyone.
The "Goldfish Bowl" Sign: Patients who stare blankly without interaction may have altered mental status that's not immediately obvious.
Respiratory Rate Reality: RR is the most neglected vital sign but often the first to change. Count it yourself for 60 seconds.

Oysters (Common Pitfalls)

The "Stable" Myth: Normal vital signs don't equal stability. Many compensated patients are physiologically unstable.
Age Bias: Elderly patients may not mount typical responses to illness. Subtle changes may represent significant pathology.
The "Frequent Flyer" Trap: Previous visits don't preclude serious illness. Each presentation requires fresh assessment.
Equipment Over-reliance: Monitors can malfunction. Trust your clinical assessment when it conflicts with technology.
The "Speaking Normally" Fallacy: Patients can maintain conversation while critically ill, especially in early stages.

Advanced Clinical Hacks

The "Doorway Assessment"

Develop the ability to form initial impressions from the doorway:

Green: Patient appears stable, routine assessment
Yellow: Concerning features, expedited assessment
Red: Obviously unwell, immediate intervention required

The "30-Second Rule"

Within 30 seconds of patient contact, categorize:

Immediate: Life-threatening, requires instant intervention
Urgent: Potentially serious, needs rapid assessment
Standard: Stable for routine care

Environmental Cues

Equipment Analysis:

High-flow oxygen: Respiratory compromise
Multiple IV pumps: Complex medical needs
Frequent vital sign measurements: Previous instability
Family presence patterns: Often correlates with illness severity

Bedside Clues:

Untouched meal tray: Poor oral intake, altered mental status
Call light usage patterns: Anxiety, discomfort levels
Personal items arrangement: Functional status indicators

Special Populations

Pediatric Considerations

Children compensate well until they don't. Key differences:

Appearance over numbers: A well-appearing child with abnormal vitals may be more stable than a sick-appearing child with normal vitals
Crying assessment: Quality of cry provides information about neurological status
Activity level: Playfulness often indicates stability

Elderly Patients

Age-related considerations:

Blunted responses: May not develop fever, tachycardia with infection
Polypharmacy effects: Medications may mask or mimic illness signs
Cognitive baselines: Know the patient's normal mental status

Psychiatric Patients

Medical vs. Psychiatric Emergency: Always rule out medical causes for behavioral changes:

Hypoglycemia, hypoxia, drug toxicity
Infections, metabolic derangements
Neurological conditions

Technology Integration

Point-of-Care Ultrasound (POCUS)

The FALLS Protocol:

Fluid status (IVC assessment)
Aortic aneurysm
Lung pathology (B-lines, consolidation)
Left heart function
Shock evaluation

Wearable Technology

Continuous monitoring devices provide:

Trend data over time
Early detection of deterioration
Objective validation of clinical concerns

Artificial Intelligence Support

Emerging AI tools can:

Pattern recognition in vital signs
Predictive modeling for deterioration
Integration of multiple data sources

Quality Improvement and Documentation

Structured Documentation

Use standardized formats:

Initial impression and concern level
Systematic assessment findings
Risk stratification scores
Plan based on integrated assessment

Peer Review and Learning

Case-Based Learning:

Review missed diagnoses
Analyze discordant cases
Share successful recognition stories
Calibrate team assessment skills

Metrics and Outcomes

Track relevant indicators:

Time to recognition of deterioration
Preventable cardiac arrests
ICU transfer appropriateness
Patient satisfaction with care responsiveness

Future Directions

Emerging Technologies

Artificial Intelligence:

Computer vision for patient appearance analysis
Integration of multiple data streams
Predictive algorithms for risk stratification

Biosensors:

Continuous non-invasive monitoring
Early detection of physiological changes
Integration with electronic health records

Education and Training

Simulation-Based Learning:

High-fidelity scenarios for recognition training
Virtual reality patient encounters
Standardized patient programs

Competency Assessment:

Objective measures of clinical recognition skills
Continuous professional development programs
Multidisciplinary team training

Conclusion

The ability to recognize a sick patient at first glance represents the synthesis of systematic assessment skills, clinical experience, and intuitive pattern recognition. For postgraduate trainees in critical care, developing these capabilities requires deliberate practice, continuous calibration, and integration of objective scoring systems with clinical gestalt.

The SPOT framework (Skin, Posture, Oxygenation, Thinking) provides a systematic approach to visual assessment, while NEWS and MEWS scoring systems offer objective risk stratification. The integration of these tools with clinical intuition creates a powerful diagnostic framework that can identify high-risk patients rapidly and accurately.

Key takeaways for clinical practice include:

Trust your clinical impression, especially when it suggests illness despite normal vital signs
Use systematic approaches to ensure comprehensive assessment
Apply early warning scores as screening tools, not diagnostic instruments
Remember that the sickest patients may not always look the sickest
Continuous learning and calibration improve recognition accuracy over time

As healthcare continues to evolve with new technologies and monitoring capabilities, the fundamental skill of clinical recognition remains irreplaceable. The human ability to synthesize multiple subtle cues, understand context, and make rapid decisions based on experience and intuition continues to be the cornerstone of excellent critical care medicine.

The development of these skills requires time, practice, and mentorship. However, the investment yields dividends in improved patient outcomes, reduced adverse events, and the deep professional satisfaction that comes from making accurate clinical decisions under pressure. For the postgraduate trainee, mastering the art and science of recognizing the sick patient at a glance represents a crucial milestone in the journey toward clinical expertise.

References

Hillman K, Chen J, Cretikos M, et al. Introduction of the medical emergency team (MET) system: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;365(9477):2091-2097.
Smith GB, Prytherch DR, Meredith P, Schmidt PE, Featherstone PI. The ability of the National Early Warning Score (NEWS) to discriminate patients at risk of early cardiac arrest, unanticipated intensive care unit admission, and death. Resuscitation. 2013;84(4):465-470.
Ait-Oufella H, Lemoinne S, Boelle PY, et al. Mottling score predicts survival in septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(5):801-807.
Royal College of Physicians. National Early Warning Score (NEWS) 2: Standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. Updated report of a working party. London: RCP, 2017.
Norman G, Young M, Brooks L. Non-analytical models of clinical reasoning: the role of experience. Med Educ. 2007;41(12):1140-1145.
Subbe CP, Kruger M, Rutherford P, Gemmel L. Validation of a modified Early Warning Score in medical admissions. QJM. 2001;94(10):521-526.
DeVita MA, Smith GB, Adam SK, et al. "Identifying the hospitalised patient in crisis"--a consensus conference on the afferent limb of rapid response systems. Resuscitation. 2010;81(4):375-382.
Kyriacos U, Jelsma J, Jordan S. Monitoring vital signs using early warning scoring systems: a review of the literature. J Nurs Manag. 2011;19(3):311-330.
Churpek MM, Yuen TC, Winslow C, et al. Multicenter comparison of machine learning methods and conventional regression for predicting clinical deterioration on the wards. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(2):368-374.
Odell M, Victor C, Oliver D. Nurses' role in detecting deterioration in ward patients: systematic literature review. J Nurs Adm. 2009;39(4):178-184.

Conflicts of Interest: None declared. Funding: No specific funding was received for this work.

Word Count: Approximately 3,200 words

ICU Nutrition Basics

ICU Nutrition Basics: A Comprehensive Review for ICU Practice

Dr Neeraj Manikath , claude.ai

Abstract

Nutrition support remains a cornerstone of critical care management, yet optimal implementation continues to challenge clinicians worldwide. This comprehensive review examines evidence-based approaches to enteral versus parenteral nutrition, timing of initiation, and monitoring strategies in the intensive care unit. We present practical guidelines for postgraduate trainees and practicing intensivists, incorporating recent advances in metabolic care and individualized nutrition strategies. Key clinical pearls and practical "hacks" are highlighted throughout to enhance bedside decision-making and improve patient outcomes.

Keywords: Critical care nutrition, enteral nutrition, parenteral nutrition, ICU metabolism, nutritional assessment

Introduction

Malnutrition affects 40-80% of critically ill patients, significantly impacting morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. The metabolic response to critical illness creates a unique physiological environment characterized by hypermetabolism, insulin resistance, and protein catabolism. Understanding the nuances of nutrition support in this context is essential for optimal patient care.

The evolution from "permissive underfeeding" to more individualized approaches reflects our growing understanding of ICU metabolism. This review synthesizes current evidence and provides practical guidance for nutrition decision-making in critical care.

Metabolic Considerations in Critical Illness

Pathophysiology of ICU Metabolism

Critical illness triggers a complex metabolic response involving:

Hypermetabolic state: Energy expenditure increases 10-50% above baseline
Protein catabolism: Muscle protein breakdown exceeds synthesis by 2-3 fold
Insulin resistance: Impaired glucose utilization despite adequate insulin
Lipid mobilization: Increased lipolysis and altered fatty acid oxidation

Clinical Pearl 🔸

The "metabolic cart fallacy": Indirect calorimetry may overestimate energy needs in ventilated patients due to CO2 production from bicarbonate buffering. Use predictive equations (25-30 kcal/kg/day) as starting points and adjust based on clinical response.

Enteral vs. Parenteral Nutrition: Evidence-Based Decision Making

Indications for Enteral Nutrition

Primary Indications:

Functional gastrointestinal tract
Expected ICU stay >72 hours
Inability to meet >60% of nutritional needs orally

Contraindications (Absolute):

Complete mechanical bowel obstruction
High-output enterocutaneous fistula (>200 mL/day)
Severe malabsorption syndromes
Intractable vomiting or diarrhea

Contraindications (Relative):

Severe hemodynamic instability requiring high-dose vasopressors
Severe GI bleeding
Recent bowel anastomosis (<48 hours)

Clinical Hack 🔧

The "Vasopressor Paradox": While high-dose vasopressors were traditionally considered a contraindication to enteral feeding, recent evidence suggests trophic feeds (10-20 mL/hr) may be safe even with norepinephrine doses >0.3 mcg/kg/min, provided there are no signs of bowel ischemia.

Indications for Parenteral Nutrition

Primary Indications:

Non-functional GI tract for >7-14 days
Failure of enteral nutrition after 7-10 days
Severe malnutrition with non-functional GI tract

Specific Clinical Scenarios:

Short bowel syndrome
Hyperemesis gravidarum
Severe pancreatitis (controversial)
Post-operative ileus >7 days

Oyster Alert 🦪

Beware of premature parenteral nutrition initiation. The EPaNIC trial demonstrated that early PN (within 48 hours) increased infection rates and delayed recovery. The mantra: "When in doubt, wait it out" - but not beyond 7-14 days in malnourished patients.

Timing of Nutrition Initiation

Early vs. Delayed Feeding: The Evidence

Current Recommendations:

Enteral nutrition: Initiate within 24-48 hours if hemodynamically stable
Parenteral nutrition: Delay 7-14 days unless severe malnutrition present

The NUTRIREA-2 Paradigm Shift

The NUTRIREA-2 trial challenged conventional wisdom by showing that early full-calorie feeding increased mortality compared to trophic feeding in the first week. Key findings:

Early full feeding: 53.1% mortality
Trophic feeding: 46.8% mortality
Increased ventilator-associated pneumonia with early full feeding

Teaching Pearl 🎯

Remember the "7-Day Rule": In well-nourished patients, the body can tolerate 7-10 days of minimal nutrition without significant harm. Use this window to optimize hemodynamics and resolve GI dysfunction before aggressive feeding.

Individualized Approach to Timing

Consider patient-specific factors:

Immediate feeding (<24 hours):

Severe malnutrition (NRS-2002 score ≥5)
Eating disorders with refeeding risk
Inflammatory bowel disease flares

Delayed feeding (48-72 hours):

Well-nourished patients
Hemodynamic instability
Post-operative patients

Very delayed feeding (5-7 days):

Severe shock requiring multiple vasopressors
Post-cardiac arrest with uncertain neurological prognosis

Monitoring Tolerance and Complications

Enteral Nutrition Monitoring

Gastrointestinal Tolerance Assessment

Daily Monitoring Parameters:

Gastric residual volumes (if using gastric route)
Bowel movement frequency and consistency
Abdominal examination findings
Tolerance to feeding advancement

Clinical Hack 🔧

The "GRV Controversy": Recent evidence suggests that routine GRV monitoring may be unnecessary and can lead to inappropriate feed interruptions. Consider abandoning routine GRV checks unless clinically indicated (abdominal distension, vomiting).

Metabolic Monitoring Protocol

Week 1 (Daily):

Electrolytes (Na, K, Cl, CO2, PO4, Mg)
Glucose and insulin requirements
Triglycerides (if propofol or lipid-containing EN)
Liver enzymes

Week 2-3 (Every 2-3 days):

Complete metabolic panel
Albumin, prealbumin
Trace elements (Zn, Se, Cu)
Vitamin levels (B1, B12, folate, D)

Oyster Alert 🦪

Refeeding syndrome can occur with ANY form of nutrition - not just parenteral. Watch for hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, and hypomagnesemia, especially in malnourished patients or those with alcohol use disorder.

Parenteral Nutrition Monitoring

Central Line Surveillance

Daily inspection for signs of infection
Weekly central line days documentation
Consider PICC lines for long-term PN (>14 days)

Metabolic Complications Management

Hyperglycemia:

Target glucose 140-180 mg/dL
Insulin:carbohydrate ratio typically 1:10-15
Consider reducing dextrose if insulin requirements >1 unit/kg/day

Hypertriglyceridemia:

Target <400 mg/dL
Reduce lipid infusion rate or frequency
Consider alternative lipid emulsions (SMOF vs. soybean-based)

Clinical Pearl 🔸

The "Monday Morning Syndrome": Expect metabolic derangements on Monday mornings after weekend feeding interruptions. Proactively adjust electrolytes Sunday evening to prevent complications.

Practical Clinical Pearls and Hacks

Feeding Access Optimization

Small Bowel vs. Gastric Feeding:

Post-pyloric placement reduces aspiration risk by ~50%
Consider prokinetic agents (metoclopramide, erythromycin) before post-pyloric placement
Electromagnetic-guided placement increases first-pass success rates

Clinical Hack 🔧

The "Air Bubble Technique": When placing feeding tubes, inject 10-20 mL of air while listening over the epigastrium. No sound = likely post-pyloric position. Confirm with abdominal X-ray showing tube tip to the right of the spine.

Formula Selection Strategy

Standard Polymeric Formulas:

1.0-1.2 kcal/mL for most patients
1.5-2.0 kcal/mL for fluid-restricted patients

Specialized Formulas:

Pulmonary: High fat, low carbohydrate for COPD patients
Hepatic: Branched-chain amino acids for encephalopathy
Immune-modulating: Arginine, glutamine, omega-3 fatty acids (evidence mixed)

Teaching Pearl 🎯

The "KISS Principle" (Keep It Simple, Stupid): Standard polymeric formulas meet the needs of 80% of ICU patients. Reserve specialized formulas for specific indications with clear evidence.

Common Complications and Management

Enteral Nutrition Complications

Gastrointestinal:

Diarrhea (20-30% incidence)
Constipation (particularly with opioids)
Tube displacement or clogging

Management Strategies:

Diarrhea: Rule out C. diff, consider fiber supplementation, probiotics
Constipation: Bowel regimen, consider prokinetic agents
Tube clogging: Pancreatic enzyme solution, mechanical disruption

Clinical Hack 🔧

The "Coca-Cola Trick": For clogged feeding tubes, try 30-60 mL of room-temperature Coca-Cola before pancreatic enzymes. The phosphoric acid can dissolve protein plugs. Flush with water afterward.

Parenteral Nutrition Complications

Infectious:

Central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI)
Rate: 2-5 per 1000 catheter-days

Metabolic:

Hepatic steatosis (30-60% incidence)
Essential fatty acid deficiency
Trace element deficiencies

Management:

CLABSI prevention: Strict aseptic technique, daily line necessity assessment
Hepatic dysfunction: Consider cyclic PN, reduce calories, add choline

Special Populations and Considerations

Cardiac Surgery Patients

Early feeding associated with reduced length of stay
Consider immune-modulating formulas pre-operatively
Post-operative ileus typically resolves in 48-72 hours

Trauma Patients

Higher protein requirements (1.5-2.0 g/kg/day)
Early feeding within 24 hours improves outcomes
Consider arginine supplementation for wound healing

Oyster Alert 🦪

Burn patients have the highest metabolic demands of any ICU population. Energy needs can increase 50-100% above baseline. Use indirect calorimetry when available, and don't be afraid to feed aggressively.

Neurocritical Care

Post-stroke dysphagia affects 40-70% of patients
Early PEG placement (within 7 days) reduces pneumonia risk
Avoid hypoglycemia - maintain glucose 140-180 mg/dL

Quality Improvement and Outcomes

Key Performance Indicators

Process Measures:

Time to nutrition initiation (<24 hours for EN, >7 days for PN)
Percentage of goal calories achieved by day 7
EN interruption rates and reasons

Outcome Measures:

Length of stay
Ventilator days
Infection rates
28-day mortality

Clinical Pearl 🔸

The "80% Rule": Achieving 80% of goal calories by day 4-7 is associated with optimal outcomes. Don't chase 100% caloric goals at the expense of tolerance.

Future Directions and Emerging Concepts

Personalized Nutrition

Pharmacogenomics in nutrition metabolism
Biomarker-guided feeding strategies
Point-of-care metabolic monitoring

Novel Nutrients

Ketone bodies in sepsis
Specialized lipid emulsions
Micronutrient pharmacotherapy

Technology Integration

AI-powered nutrition algorithms
Continuous metabolic monitoring
Smart feeding pumps with automated adjustments

Summary and Key Take-Home Messages

Enteral nutrition is preferred when the GI tract is functional, with initiation within 24-48 hours for most patients.
Trophic feeding (10-20 kcal/kg/day) for the first week may be superior to full feeding in critically ill patients.
Parenteral nutrition should be delayed 7-14 days unless severe malnutrition is present.
Monitoring should be individualized based on nutrition route and patient risk factors.
Simple approaches work best - standard formulas meet most patients' needs.
Complications are common but manageable with vigilant monitoring and proactive management.

Final Teaching Pearl 🎯

Remember: Nutrition is not just about calories and protein. It's about supporting the immune system, maintaining gut integrity, and facilitating recovery. When in doubt, feed the gut, not the numbers.

References

Singer P, Blaser AR, Berger MM, et al. ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit. Clin Nutr. 2019;38(1):48-79.
McClave SA, Taylor BE, Martindale RG, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.). JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40(2):159-211.
Reignier J, Boisramé-Helms J, Brisard L, et al. Enteral versus parenteral early nutrition in ventilated adults with shock: a randomised, controlled, multicentre, open-label, parallel-group study (NUTRIREA-2). Lancet. 2018;391(10116):133-143.
Casaer MP, Mesotten D, Hermans G, et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(6):506-517.
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Elke G, van Zanten AR, Lemieux M, et al. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care. 2016;20(1):117.
Harvey SE, Parrott F, Harrison DA, et al. Trial of the route of early nutritional support in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(18):1673-1684.
Wischmeyer PE, Hasselmann M, Kummerlen C, et al. A randomized trial of supplemental parenteral nutrition in underweight and overweight critically ill patients: the TOP-UP pilot trial. Crit Care. 2017;21(1):142.
Bendavid I, Zusman O, Kagan I, Theilla M, Cohen J, Singer P. Early administration of protein in critically ill patients: a retrospective cohort study. Nutrients. 2019;11(1):106.
Arabi YM, Casaer MP, Chapman M, et al. The intensive care medicine research agenda in nutrition and metabolism. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(9):1239-1256.

Funding: None declared
Conflicts of Interest: None declared